A critical conceptualization of conspiracy theory

Conspiracy theory has lately come under greater scrutiny in countries around the world, with several conspiracy theories having gained infamy for encouraging dangerous behaviors and attitudes among their followers: QAnon United States (see Coaston, 2020); claims that COVID-19 was brought to China by Americans Chunshan, broader international anti-vaccination movement DiRusso & Stansberry, 2022; Sturm Albrecht, 2021), name just a few of most prominent. These other have contributed undermining trust political institutions even played role motivating violence, as exemplified events such Donald Trump's fraud 2020 presidential election subsequent Capitol Building riot January 6, 2021 Argentino, 2021; Bessner Frost, 2021); arrest late 2022 members Reichsbürger movement, monarchist group associated Holocaust revisionism anti-Semitic conspiracism more broadly, involvement plan overthrow Federal Republic Germany Burchett, Hill, 2022); storming Brazilian Congress supporters former president Jair Bolsonaro, on pretext his defeat also fraudulent Nicas, 2023). Despite plainly aspects theories—both terms content implications—when is conceptualized or defined, politics too often been overlooked. primarily through lens epistemology, seen particular sort truth claim, though precise definitions assessments this type claim vary (e.g., see Buenting Taylor, 2010; Cassam, 2019; Clarke, 2002; Coady, 2007; Dentith, 2018; Keeley, 1999; Pigden, Sunstein Vermeule, 2009). This epistemological framing not constrained philosophical discussions theory, being present research scientists theory. For example, study how governments could respond theories, Cass Adrian Vermeule (2009) argue belief harmful false product what they term “crippled epistemology.” Similarly, while argument are likely be endorsed losers, Uscinski Parent (2014, Chapter 2) conceptualize chiefly epistemology; largely omitted from conceptualization, instead focus standards used judge falsity Occam's Razor falsifiability. The question certainly very important aspect theorizing, any will try persuade us things one way another. However, persuasion here A indeed make claims, but those made vacuum; articulated context influenced factors identity theorist's audience, medium which communicating, moment expressed. In way, rhetoric key importance, yet excluded conceptualizations My primary article we should adjust think about idea Rather than taking referring claim—one posits existence conspiracy—we necessary parts concept Therefore, viewing only falsity, rationality irrationality, ask doing sense; ideas assumptions it expressing? What identities constructing? To whom addressed, context? By focusing rhetorical questions, conceptualization I outline encourages take themselves our objects study, examine articulated, seek persuade. develop draws combination Adorno's (2007, 2008) negative dialectics well Billig (1991) Finlayson's (2004, 2007, 2012) writing thinking. refer “critical conceptualization,” as, spirit critical seeks “against flow (reified) world” neither granted nor treating natural, examining its social constitution place life (Best et al., 2018). builds invaluable historians cultural studies researchers, helped trace development legitimate an illegitimate form knowledge Bratich, 2008; Butter, 2014, 2020, Fenster, McKenzie-McHarg, 2020; Thalmann, 2019). approaching task am interested influences practice theorizing. As many scholars already noted, encounter today comes set pejorative connotations Parent, 2014). Besides entities activities (conspiracy theorizing), then, itself developed significance own. Uscinki note, “To label someone theorist may him her uneven terrain” (2014). Via overview changing meaning significance, contains tension—if exact contradiction—between two ways used: On hand, denote explanation cause something; mark out illegitimate, assuming unwarranted, irrational, false. While neutral descriptive does specific latter assumes treated suspicion. tension between meanings produces dilemma kind. person whose utterance at risk labeled best marginalization speaker. speaker, audience improve chances exception general rule suspicion stigmatization. affects generally, speaker author's response case next. Finlayson explains, attempts persuasive “can grasped strategic contextual rather abstract generalizable” (2004). How said left unsaid, depending context. some cases, refrain expressing fear stigmatization delegitimization. strategy preemption used, whereby anticipates dismissal tries head off early on, phrases “I theorist, but…” (McKenzie-McHarg Fredheim, 2017). Alternatively, turn stigma advantage, using delegitimization proof must something, Alex Jones able do (Thalmann, analyses grounded each one. such, offer one-size-fits-all approach studying conspiracism, pay attention without losing sight concept.1 Now my own, brief word trying achieve. avoid confusion, stress assessing epistemic conceptual value arguing rescued stigma, category undeserving status. Moreover, determine whether might true. Rather, developing stronger basis analyzing theoretical perspective. first push paid theories. influential book, Theories, Fenster (2008) emphasizes “conspiracy always significant element American rhetoric,” sees closely linked populism. him, both populism posit opposition “the people” shadowy elite (Fenster, 2008). during Algerian Civil War, Silverstein (2002) argues theorizing construction common culture Algerians, amid climate censorship strict control national media. Iqtidar (2016) historical context, change. Focusing Pakistan Blackwater private military firm, she takes these imaginaries hold potential collective change, serving possible strategies calling accountability companies areas where operate. complement earlier pieces contradicting them. authors, saying politics, it. involve discursive narratives, detects presume all articulating uniformly populist vision—while there clear structural affinity populism, conflating related beliefs, authoritarianism ethnonationalism (Bonikowski, far theory's conceptuality, recognizing occupies same reality phenomenon describes articulation begins outlining starting describing solely opposed. section, highlight relevance work next section examines history concept, drawing previous showing 19th century mid-20th century. show change brings within aspect. can overcome perspective, final causes rhetoric; faces challenge persuading position stated above, aim new aspects. contrasts view overlooking situated. mind briefly defining theory,” involves thinking themselves, discourse. Before own position, worth sorts approaches inadequate. epistemology—as gaining knowledge, detached psychologist Goertzel (1994) omits basic definition term's irrationality self-evident reader. It becomes that, whatever he understands term, problematic when part monological system, impervious evidence “speak ignoring shallowest respects” (Goertzel, 1994). symptomatic deeper problems alienation disaffection, reasons: “The issue [with conspiratorial beliefs] conspiracy, logical processes led belief” therefore problem because inadequate knowing truth. domains, people suffer epistemology,” sense know things, wrong. Many extremists fall category; extremism stems fact little (relevant) information, extremist views supported know. Goertzel's taken specifically faulty knowledge; stop understanding situation event. conceptualizing epistemology no play here—clearly does, expression (a least claiming something). find strip factors, overlook centrality Some sensible silly, if silly defect—for instance, conspiracies postulate impossible far-fetched. similar advanced Coady (2018) who argued dissuade investigating occurrence real purposes article, merits faults Pigden Coady's arguments relevant; making considering potentially ground analysis actual cases them society. From flaw erasure strips factor—what describe concept. Regardless agree disagree arguments, recognize written picture concern society politics. including creators choose say, say it, occur isolation context; thus seems me something vitally adopting advocated Coady. accounts are, absent, puzzle needs solving. Cassam (2019) adopts reverse likes generally rejected “unlikely true” “implausible design” speculative explanations solid evidence. He adjusts assertion proven true then actually fact” (Cassam, Once again, understood epistemological, occasion refers fault. Cassam's goes step right direction correctly “a propaganda political” (2019). against root concerned reasons believing them, so treats mainly matter, different theorists propagandize given. piece communication author simply appears fully formed audience. Ultimately, account use tell unlikely believed. Something missing far, namely occurs formulated communicated vacuum—they neat tidy way. productive point would follow Billig's observation belief, individual convey personal positions relation beliefs public argument: “Our merely heads, belong wider contexts controversy” (Billig, 1991). consider appeared wake 2010 Smolensk air disaster, plane carrying Polish Lech Kaczyński crashed due human error poor visibility, killing 95 others Guardian, 2011). When expresses version event, crash result plot Vladimir Putin Tusk, nonconspiratorial distrust state's ability accurately report matter. consequences, disaster polarization (Bilewicz Tworzecki suggests, Law Justice party, Kaczyński's twin brother, Jarosław, adopted “dogma” sought “sow mistrust normalizing theories” going positing conspiracy's existence. argumentative contexts, function, maintenance power divisions. Without importance stymieing particulars narrowly interpreting reaching remove efforts constructing narrative identities, assumptions. theory” certain (faulty) knowledge. mean features, affecting context—specifically, impacted away with. difficult perhaps convoluted task, believe necessary. start with, means gain better object is—of intending analyze, Put simply, want learn help is. Of course, shades grey crossover kinds discourse, forms millennialism spirituality (Asprem Dyrendal, 2015; Barkun, 2013; Ward Voas, 2011), despite opaque boundaries still talk Conceptuality recognition reality—not concepts. Concepts required render intelligible, grasp comprehend reified relations understand compulsion issues Conceptualization beyond immediate perception order hidden immediacy appearance. appearance of, appearance? phenomenon, impacts society, need static unchanging, came over time. subsume performances [of thinking] philosophy expressions disclose visible bring forth dramatise. enough categorize ideas, to. nonconceptual referent, failing dialectical relationship (Adorno, 2007). No exhaust every captured single definition. Our time, again future societies. Having along line lines proposed based now begin construct developed. Drawing McKenzie-McHarg (2018 ,2020 ), Thalmann (2019), Wood (1982), changed paying since Conspiracies long feature history, see, shown, origins print journalism 1860s 1870s, explain crimes broad, all-encompassing plots, did carry today, (McKenzie-McHarg,2018 , ). “scientization,” process scientific principles methods were into nonscientific authority science grew expense religion, field increasingly aspired principle objectivity introducing vocabulary reporting. himself notes, “by 1880s readers newspaper found encountering notions evidence, proof, refutation, fact, and–most significantly purposes—theory” (2018, emphasis original). observes “theory” ambiguous quality sometimes goal investigation build accurate times suggests determined (McKenzie-McHarg, Journalists aspiring necessarily engaged speculation opinions people. gives example discovery bones, reports had devised “murder speculating belonged murdered human—they ultimately animal bones case, lends rigor mere bystander. “suicide “blackmail “abduction began appear newspapers half “Conspiracy explaining crime. At time generic “generated anew case” 2020). differently, sense, class explanations. Instead, tied incident lacked today. construed existed prior creation term; shows, texts to, create nothing. Popper cited scholar offered critique deHaven-Smith, 1995; book Open Society Its Enemies, originally published 1945, society” historicism (Popper, 1963). phenomena explained identifying caused happen, interest occurrence. According view, everything happens according someone's design, Learned Elders Zion, monopolists, capitalists, imperialists” dismisses irrational seeing hangover religious superstition held sway. sheer number individuals acting achieve ends (often contradiction them) cannot uncovering conspiracies—things complicated warrant explanation. matter much goals, rarely run smoothly interaction unintended consequences foreseen. Popper's notion indicates move toward requiring explanation, longer crime like Nor classify Thus, contributes shift classifying